(cfr. Précis historiques, September 15 1854, Letter IX, Opinions religieuses des Assiniboins)
Letter X.
TO THE EDITOR OF THE PRÉCIS HISTORIQUES, BRUSSELS.
Religious Opinions of the Assiniboins
CINCINNATI, COLLEGE OF ST. XAVIER, July 28, 1854.
REV. AND DEAR FATHER:
In my last letter, dated the 16th of this month, when sending you the translation of the address of the Bear, the great Assiniboin chief, I promised you a sketch of the religious and superstitious opinions of that nation. I will now fulfil my promise.
I here propose acquainting you with the religious worship and moral code of the Assiniboins : it may be considered as the type of the superstitious creed of the greater portion of the barbarous tribes which roam over the forests and prairies of the Upper Missouri.
Shrouded in idolatrous darkness, these people have no clear idea of their origin or end. Upon the momentous questions, "Whence came I?" and "What is my future destiny?" there are various conjectures, even among those nations who have received even a feeble light concerning the eternal verities of the Gospel. All the Indians admit the existence of the Great Spirit, viz., of a Supreme Being who governs all the important affairs of life, and who manifests ; his action in the most ordinary events. They have no correct notion of the immutability of God. They think they can obtain his favors in the accomplishment of their projects,
Whatever be their nature, by presents, corporate macerations, penances, fasts, &c. Thus every spring at the first peal of thunder, which they call the voice of the Great Spirit, speaking from the clouds, the Assiniboins offer it sacrifices; some burn tobacco, and present to The Great Spirit the most exquisite pieces of buffalo-meat, by casting them into the fire; while others make deep incisions in the fleshy parts of their bodies, and even cut off the first joints of their fingers, to offer them in sacrifice. Thunder, next to the sun, is their Great Wah-kon (Incomprehensible. See note, p. 120.) They hear it, and after a storm they sometimes perceive the effects of the lightning on the trees, on their horses, and on man; hence it is an object of dread, and they endeavor to appease it.
It is rare that, during the course of a year, a family is not visited by some calamity; - disease; death, either natural or at the hands of their foes; the loss of their horses, their richest treasure, by robbery; in fine, the scarcity of game, which condemns them to rigorous fasts, and sometimes even famine. At the least misfortune the father of a family presents the calumet to the Great Spirit, and, in prayer, implores him to take pity on him, his wives, and children. He promises to give him a part of all he possesses, at the first peal of thunder in the spring. When it is practicable, the various camps collect, as soon as winter is over, to offer their gifts and sacrifices in union. This is the religious ceremony par excellence. The Assiniboins attach the highest importance to it. They often speak of it in the course of the year and look forward to its immediate arrival with joy, respect and veneration. Sometimes three or four hundred lodges of families assemble in one locality. One sole individual is named the high-priest, and directs all the ceremonies of the festival. A species of hall is constructed, with about thirty lodges, of skins of the buffalo. Each lodge is composed of twenty or twenty-four skins, stretched over a number of posts, seven or eight feet high. On the top of these posts several hundred perches are fastened, and on these each family hangs the articles that it intends to offer in sacrifice. These consist of skins of animals, richly embroidered with porcelain or glass beads, adorned with feathers of every hue; many colored collars, clothes, and ornaments of all kinds, making a rich and varied "great Indian exhibition." Opposite to this ball they raise a high pole, to which all the chiefs and braves bang their medicine-bags, containing the idols, their arrows, quivers, trophies won from their enemies, especially scalps. This pole is a tree, stripped of its bark, and thirty or forty feet high. Men, women, and children, in a spirit of religion, join in raising and planting it, amid the acclamations of the tribe.
After these preliminaries, the ceremony begins with a harangue and a prayer to the Great Spirit by the highpriest. He implores him to accept their gifts, to take pity on them, protect them against sickness, accidents, and misfortunes of all kinds, and to give them a plenteous bunt, plenty of bison, stag, deer, bighorns, wild-goat, &c., and to aid them in their wars and excursions against their enemies. Then he offers the calumet to the Great Spirit., to the sun, to each of the four cardinal points, to the water, and the land, with words analogous to the benefits which they obtain from each. The sacred calumet is then passed to all the chiefs and warriors, who draw two or three whiffs of smoke, which he puffs out towards heaven, at the same time
elevating the pipe. The day finishes with the great "medicine dance," and a variety of dances in honor of the animals which I have named. In- these last they try to imitate, as much as possible, the cries and movements of those animals. Men alone perform this dance.
The second clay is devoted to representations; that is, the jugglers, or medicine-men, perform their tricks. Some of these men succeed in imposing on these simple and credulous souls, who discover the supernatural in every thing that they do not understand : this is great or little Wah-kon, as it is more or less incomprehensible. Most of these representations are more feats of legerdemain, which would scarcely excite a smile of mirth or the least astonishment in a circle of civilized persons. During their execution the men and women accompany the jugglers in a kind of chant, which consists of words analogous to the feast, but it is difficult to define what they say, amid their modulations of tone.
The third day is consumed in (lances and banquets, in which all can participate. It is highly arousing to witness this spectacle. Among the meats, dogs are particularly numerous-little and big, roasted and boiled, whole or en appalas; these form the principal viands of the great religious banquet. Dishes of other meats; with roots, corn, wheat, sugar, &c., are added. All the pots and kettles of the whole tribe, of every form and dimension, are placed over a long row of fires. The braves distribute these meats with admirable order, giving to each one his share. . These portions disappear with truly wonderful celerity.
The Assiniboins have two kinds of dances for this feast. Most of them dance some rounds for amusement, and leave the circle when they choose; but a band of young men form the great religious dance, and make a vow to the thunder, or voice of the Great Spirit. Then they perform various dances, which last three whole days and nights, with only - slight intervals, without their taking the least nourishment
or refreshment. I have this from a credible eye-witness.
This extraordinary act is penitential, or rather, propitiatory, to obtain from the Great Spirit success in war. The camp, on this occasion, assumes a new life. All the garments and articles prepared during the winter, from the embroidered leggin and moccasin to the eagle-plumed headpiece, adorn their bodies for the first time, and the whole assembly appears quite brilliant ; the camp acquires a new life. Those who are not at the moment occupied in the religious observances, spend their time in games and often very spirited conversation. The feast lasts about ten days. Before separating, each person tears or cats the article which he sacrificed, so that no one can be tempted to take possession of it. Thus last act performed, the different companies separate to their own hunting grounds.
They have some other religious practices and ceremonies, which I observed on my visit, and which are curious enough to be noticed here.
The sun is honored and worshipped by the greater number of the Indian tribes as the author of light and heat. The Assiniboins consider it likewise to be the favorite residence of the Master of Life. They evidence a great respect and veneration for the sun, but rarely address it. On great occasions they offer it their prayers and supplications, but only in a low tone. Whenever they light the calumet, they offer the sun the first whiffs of its smoke.
The Indians regard a solar eclipse as the forerunner of some great disaster; and if a juggler can ascertain from a white man the period of the arrival of an eclipse, he is sure to make use of it to display his Wah-kon, or supernatural knowledge. At the moment of the eclipse the Indians rush .out of their lodges, armed in full. They fire their guns, discharge their arrows in the air, and shout and howl,' in order to frighten and put to flight the enemy of the Master of Life. Their pretended success is followed by great rejoicings.
The bear is the terror of all American Indians, for he causes the most serious accidents, and is excessively dangerous, if he be encountered in a thick forest. Every year some savage is killed or crippled in a fight with a bear. They address it prayers and invocations; they offer it sacrifices of tobacco, belts, and other esteemed objects; they celebrate feasts in its honor, to obtain its favors and live without accident. The bear's head is often preserved' in the camp during several days, mounted in some suitable position, and adorned with scraps of scarlet cloth, and trimmed with a variety of necklaces, collars, and colored feathers. Then they offer it the calumet, and ask that they may be able to kill all the bears they meet, without accident to themselves, in order to anoint themselves with his fine grease and make a banquet of his tender flesh.
The wolf is also more or less honored among the Indians. Most of the women refuse to dress its skin, at any price. The only reason that I could discover for this freak is, that the wolves sometimes get mad, bite those they meet, and give them the hydrophobia. It is, doubtless, to escape this terrible disease, and to avoid the destruction of their game, that the Indians make it presents and offer it supplications and prayers. In other cases he is little feared. He seldom injures men, but is formidable to the animals, and makes great ravages among them, especially among bison calves, kids, deer, antelopes, hares, &c.
The "little medicine-wolf" is in great veneration among the Assiniboins. He ordinarily approaches the camp during the night. As soon as an Indian hears his barks, he counts number, with care ; he remarks whether his voice is feeble or strong, and from what point of the compass it comes. These observations then become the subject of
discussion to the jugglers. What are the prognostics ? Why, the "little medicine-wolf" announces to them that on the morrow they may expect a visit from a friend or, froth an enemy, or perhaps a herd of buffalo. The Indians frequently regulate their movements or marches by these indications; and if, as occasionally happens, they result according to the explanation of the barks, the little wolf is favored with the ceremony of a grand feast !
The belief in ghosts is very profound, and common in all these tribes. Indians have often told me, seriously, that they bad met, seen, and conversed with them, and that they may be heard almost every night in the places where the dead are interred. They say they speak in a kind of whistling tone. Sometimes they contract the face like a person in an epileptic fit. Nothing but the hope of gain could ever induce an Indian to go alone in a burying-ground at night. In such a case, love of gain might triumph over the fear of ghosts; but an Indian woman would never be induced, on any condition, to enter one.
The Assiniboins esteem greatly a religions custom of assembling once or twice in the year around the tombs of their immediate relatives. These sepulchres are raised on a species of scaffold, about seven or eight feet above the surface of the soil. The Indians call the dead by their names, and offer them meats carefully dressed, which they place beside them. They take care, however, to consume the best pieces themselves,-after the custom of the priests of the idols of old, who offered their false gods the heart, blood, entrails, and indigestible parts, reserving to themselves the most delicate portions of the victim. The ceremony of burying the dead, among the Indians, is terminated by the tears, wailings, howlings, and macerations of all present. They tear the hair, gash their legs, and at last the calumet is lighted, for this is the Alpha and Omega of every rite. They offer it to the shades of the departed, and entreat them not to injure the living. During their ceremonious repasts, in their excursions, and even at a great distance from their tombs, they send to the dead puffs of tobacco-smolre and burn little pieces of meat as a sacrifice in their memory.
The religious worship of the Assiniboins embraces a great variety of practices too lengthy to recount-they all bear the same characteristics. I will add, however, one remark able point. Each savage who considers himself a chief or warrior, possesses what he calls his Wah-kon, in which he appears to place all his confidence. This consists of a stuffed bird, a weasel's skin, or some little bone or the tooth of an animal; sometimes it is a little stone, or a fantastical figure, represented by little heads or by a coarsely painted picture. These charms or talismans accompany them on all their expeditions, for war or hunting-they never lay it aside. In every difficulty or peril they invoke the protection and assistance of their Wah-kon, as though these idols could really preserve them from all misfortunes. If any accident befalls an idol or charm, if it is broken or lost, it is enough to arrest the most intrepid chief or warrior in his expedition, and make him abandon the most important enterprise in which he may be engaged. It is true that they have a conviction that all assistance should come from the Great Spirit ; but as they can neither see nor touch him, they invoke him through their favorite tutelary idols. If it happen (though the case is very rare) that an individual should profess not to believe in any ]rind of Wah-kon, lie is regarded among the Indians very much as an infidel or an atheist world be in a Catholic country. They point at him and avoid him. In regard to the future state, they believe that the souls of
the dead migrate towards the South, where the climate is mild, the game abundant, and the rivers well stocked with fish. Their hell is the reverse of this picture ; its unfortunate inmates dwell in perpetual snow and ice, and in the complete deprivation of all things. There are, however, many among them who think death is the cessation of life and action, and that there is naught beyond it. As they feel uncertain which is true, they seem to attach no great importance to either. They seldom speak of it; they manifest their views to those whites who inquire of them, and in whom they feel confidence.
The moral principles of the Assiniboins are few in number. Their opinions concerning good and evil have little precision. The social position is respected among them to a
certain degree. Fear, on almost every occasion, governs and determines the conduct of the Indian. If he has any ground to suspect that another intends to take his life, he seizes the earliest opportunity of killing that person, provided be can do so without endangering his own life. This case is not looked upon as murder, but as a justifiable self-defence. The crime of murder, properly so called, is not known among them. They never kill, except in quarrels, to avenge or to defend themselves, and custom with them justifies the act. To behave otherwise, according to their received views, would be regarded as an act of folly.
Theft, among the Assiniboins, is only considered disgraceful when it is discovered; then shame and infamy are attached rather to the awkwardness of the thief, for having taken his measures so ill. The old women are acknowledged the most adroit thieves in the country ; nevertheless, it is only just to add that the men seldom omit stealing any object, if it can prove useful to them.
Adultery is punished with death in almost every case.
The seducer seldom escapes, if the husband and his family have the power and the coinage to execute this law. Hence this crime is rather uncommon. The woman is sometimes killed, but always severely punished. The husband causes her head to be closely shaved, and her person painted over with a heavy coat of vermilion mixed with bear's grease; she is then mounted on a horse, the mane and tail of which have been cut off, and the whole body also daubed with vermilion; an old man conducts her all around the camp and proclaims aloud her infidelity; at last he commits her to the bands of her own relatives, who receive the culprit with a good beating. A woman cannot be subjected to a more de grading punishment.
An Assiniboin has no scruple in lying, when he can obtain any advantage from it: he rarely tells falsehoods in jest. In regard to theft, falsehood, and adultery, the Assiniboins differ from the Indians near the Rocky Mountains, especially the Flat-Heads and the Pends d'oreilles, who detest these vices. It may be observed that the Assiniboins- have been in relations with the whites during a succession of years.
False oaths are very rare among the Indians, when their promises are assumed with any solemnity. The objects by which the Assiniboin swears are his gun, the skin of the rattlesnake, a bear's claw, and the Wah-kon that the Indian interrogates. These various articles are placed before him, and he says, "In case my declaration prove false, may my gun: fire and kill me, may the serpent bite me, may the bears tear and devour my flesh, may my Wah-kon overwhelm me with misery." A circumstance in which perjury could save his life, is the only one in which a savage would be tempted to commit it. In extraordinary and very important affairs, which demand formal promises, they call upon the thunder to witness their resolution of accomplishing the articles proposed and accepted. The whole vocabulary of the Assiniboin and Sioux language contains but one single word which can be considered insulting or as blasphemous. This word expresses the wish that the person or tiring in question may become ugly, as we would say in French "Le Monstre," or in Flemish "Gy leelyke beest." The name of the Great Spirit is never pronounced in vain, but always with highest marks of veneration. In this respect the language of the poor Indian is more noble than the more polished tongues of many civilized nations, where there is ever or, the swearer's lips curses and blasphemies, and where men mingle in all their conversation the Dame of the Almighty ! Such an individual would not only excite horror in the Indian, but would ever, excite his terror.
The Sioux, or Dacotahs, of whom the Assiniboins are a branch, pretend that thunder is an enormous bird, and that the muffled sound of the distant thunder is caused by a countless number of young birds! The great bird, they say, gives the first sound, and the young ones repeat it : this is the cause of the reverberations. The Sioux declare that the young thunderers do all the mischief, like giddy youth, who will Dot listen to good advice; but the old thunderer, or big bird, is wise and excellent, he never kills or injures any one! The Assiniboins dread vampires and bats. Should these fly near a man, it is an omen of evil. The `Pill-with-a-wisp is also a great terror to them. The man who sees one during the night, is certain that death is about to carry away some cherished member of his family.
They believe in dreams. According to them, good dreams come from a spirit that loves them, and desires to give them good advice; bad dreams, in particular the night-mare, render them sad and melancholy, and lead them to dread the arrival of painful events.
Not a day passes in an Indian family without some one having seen or heard something that augurs evil. This 'always excites an anxiety : hence their superstitions become a kind of torment.
I have the honor to be, very dear Father,
Your devoted Serv't and Bro. in Christ,
P. J. DE SMET, S. J.
P. S.-I hope to send you, in a few days, some account of Indian hunts, and especially of a great bison-hunt made by the Assiniboins in a kind of inclosure or park. If possible, I will add a sketch, to enable you to understand what I try to describe.
The thermometer stands here at 96°, and even 102°. I am afraid my style shows it. The heat is so excessive that several persons have fallen dead in the streets.
I hope you have received my itinerary, my letter on our shipwreck on the Humboldt, and the address sent me by the Bear, the Assiniboin chief., Please acknowledge receipt of all my letters.