It is common knowledge that Indonesia was under the Dutch rule for three and a half centuries. The statement implies that in all that time, Indonesian people did not react at all except to submit to the Dutch colonial government. In reality, they were not that passive. Another point of view has it that the Indonesians fought against the Dutch for three and a half centuries. It means that during this period there were reactive upheavals in the form of defiance and resistance against Dutch actions to effect domination. Indeed, the history of Indonesia recorded struggle after struggle against the Dutch since their arrival in the East Indies until they were banished from the islands. And, thanks to these fights the Indonesian people became an independent people in a souvereign country. And today they have enjoyed freedom for fifty years.

The struggle of the Indonesian people to free themselves from foreign rule may be said to end with the proclamation of independence of Indonesia on August 17, 1945. However, another struggle exists, still against the West, although no longer specifically against the Dutch, and that is, the effort to respond to Western domination on our culture.

Success in many fields, e.g. in politics, science and technology, economics, made possible it possible for Western nations (European and the USA) to subjugate other nations in cultural matters. The fast and dynamic developments in their cultures brought about a tendency that Western culture became the center of attention of the world and was considered as the proper model of cultural development that would have to be followed by other nations. The Western culture was used as measure for world culture.

This idolatory view then made the Western peoples depreciate cultural developments in other places. Cultural achievements, such as in the arts, in places other than the West were judged only as achievements of shadows and imitations of Western culture. Renewals and modernization in places other than the West were considered as Westernization. What brought about this Western arrogance was actually not all the fault of the Western peoples, but often it was based on the error of the non-Western peoples in judging developments in Western culture. In addition, developments in artistic achievements outside the West often regarded artistic changes in the West as measures, and even were used as reference for evaluation.

In the long process, modern education in various fields in Indonesia, including the arts, became very much influenced by thoughts and methodologies with roots in the West. However, Indonesian cultural developments since the beginning of the 20th century should be properly judged not merely as imitations of Western culture, or as Westernization, but as progressive and reactive actions of Indonesian artists and advocates of cultural advancement in the effort to catch up with achievements of the Western artists. They started with studying the successes of Western artists and gradually tried to match them and then try to free themselves from 'dependence on the West'; the goal was that they would become independent and capable of playing their roles optimally at home and abroad (international forums).

In what followes are presented sketches of the progression of national and cultural awakening in Indonesia that are reflected in developments in art.

Determination to unite and determination to study the West.

If one focusses one's attention specifically on Indonesian national developments since the beginning of the 20th century, then one can see movements having similar qualities with those in Europe, particularly in the awakening of nationalism. This new consciousness echoed throughout the islands and materialized into the spirit to live as one nation. The national spirit culminated in 1928 in the Youth Creed (Sumpah Pemuda): One Homeland, One Nation and One Language-Indonesia. One important meaning of the Youth Creed is the rise of a cultural consciousness to gather various differences (pluralities and heterogenieties) - ethnicities, traditions, languages, religions and beliefs - into one unity: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika. Since then national movements in the development of the Indonesian nation grew wider and stronger. If the beginning of the 20th century in Europe was marked by, among others, the spirit of European artists to study artistic expression forms in places other than the West (consider Gauguin, Matisse or Picasso for instance), in Indonesia it was marked by the zeal of Indonesian artists to study esthetics and painting techniques from the West. It was recorded that a number of Indonesian painters studied in various art academies in the Netherlands. The existing motivation, accompanied by various efforts and aspirations of Dutch painters residing in Indonesia at the time, brought about in Indonesia one kind of natural landscape art that involved skills and knowledge of perspective - the pride of Western art since the Rennaissance. Painting then became a medium to record the beauty of nature in Indonesia. Then came to surface important names such as Wakidi, Abdullah Surio Subroto, and Mas Pirngadi. Their legacy was passed on to the next generation of artistis such as Basuki Abdullah, Omar Basalamah, Wahdi and others.

The presence of natural landscape art in that period is not always identical to negative doings - imitations or fulfilling Dutch tastes - but rather it should be viewed as a breakthrough by indigenous artists to bring renewal (modernization) into the world of Indonesian art. This step is taken on the basis of their desire to study the skills and science of Western art - the desire and efforts to catch up with achievements of Western artists. It is of no surprise, therefore, that observers of Indonesian art history established that the beginning of modern Indonesian art was connected with the phenomenon just described, which began with Raden Saleh Syarif Bustaman (1807-1880).

To bring Indonesian art down to earth.

The art of painting natural landscapes and its developments, especially after it was passed on to the next generation of painters (Basuki Abdullah and other painters of this period) was sharply criticized by a group of painters, led by S.Sudjojono, under the banner of Persagi (Persatuan Ahli Gambar Indonesia - Association of Indonesian Painters). Sudjojono charged that the art of Basuki Abdullah was an artistic expression that was blind to the realities in society, the suffering under the colonization. He stated that the reality painted by Basuki Abdullah was only a quasi-reality, the drawing of painting subjects artificially and beautified. Sudjojono called it the "Mooi Indie"-art.

Sudjojono and friends offered a concept of art that, according to him, would reflect realistic condition and situation of Indonesian society of the time. This art of painting was characterized by humanistic, populist, and traditional-life themes in stylistic expressions that emphasized the artist's subjective approach (the apparent spirit). The presentation of man with expressivity emphasized, characterized development of Indonesian painting of that period.

Sudjojono's determined artistic cause reflected the general attitude of Indonesians who were unwavering in their struggle for independence from Dutch colonialism. The discours that gave birth to modernization in the life of art showed that artistic upheavals were not only events in the flow of existing styles, but they were born of thoughts that were contiuously bubbling and searching for something. This cause continued on and developed further in various forms until the Japanese occupation period (1942-1945). The brief period under Japanese rule intensified consciousness in the minds of Indonesians of their own cultural potential, as could be seen in artistic activities that bloomed and came alive in that time (art, drama, literature, music). The Japanese authorities used art for war propaganda while Indonesians took advantage of it to improve the quality of technical skills in artistic expressions. The struggles prepared the way that led to the poclamation of the Republic of Indonesia on August 17, 1945. Since then, one independent nation was born and grew in a souvereign state. The proclamation was a very important and historical momentum not only for the Indonesian people, but also for the fighting spirit of other nations under colonialism at that time.

Pioneering in search of identity.

The development of modern Indonesian art in time of physical struggles (the revolution period) until the beginning of the sixties as marked, among others, by the establishment and growth of artist organizations and studios (sanggar) to create artistic activities as efforts of artists to contribute substance into the newly acquired independence, in the form of achievements in art and culture. In this period came forth names of painters, such as Sudjojono, Agus Djaja, Hendra Gunawan and Affandi. The artist organizations then pioneered the establishment and development of formal education in art. The beginning of the fifties witnessed the development of art that was highlighted by the establishment of institutions for formal art education. Thus came into being a new era in modern Indonesian art: academization of art.

Academization of art in that period manifested in Seni Rupa Bandung (or Bandung School - now Fakultas Seni Rupa dan Desain, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Teknologi Bandung, ITB), founded in 1947. and Seni Rupa Yogya ( now: Fakultas Seni Rupa dan Desain, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Seni Indonesia - ISI, Indonesian Institute of Art), established in 1950. In the beginning stages of this academization of art there arose debates on issues of Indonesian identity in art, and on art in general. An accusation toward Bandung Art that its art was a Western laboratorium, i.e. art with Western characteristics, that was launched by Yogya Art who felt more deeply rooted in Indonesia, went on for about ten years as an interesting polemic. On the positive account, both sides gave arguments and evidence (in art creations) that in later days could be seen as creative forward leaps in the history of modern Indonesian art development. Bandung Art pioneered in abstract art creations, while Yogya Art oriented toward representational art. Indonesian artists representative of developments of that period included A. Sadali, Srihadi Soedarsono, But Muchtar, Mochtar Apin, Popo Iskandar, all from Bandung; and Affandi, Sudjojono, Hendra Gunawan, Widayat, Fajar Sidik and Edi Sunarso from Yogyakarta. Another milestone in the dynamic modern Indonesian art development occured in the seventies when two trends came to surface. First, the trend to explore traditional and primitive art of the Indonesian archipelago, undertaken by modern artists. And another, the trend to diffuse differences between the Bandung and Yogya group, in the form of joint activities by yound Bandung and Yogya artists under the name of New Art Group (Kelompok Seni Rupa Baru).

This period was later viewed as the decade in which Indonesian artists became conscious of the importance and the gravity of the need for an Indonesian art identity, to show difference from Western art identity that was dominant then. On the other hand, the new art movement appeared as a push to put importance in the need for progressive development in Indonesian art, to anticipate developments and challenges in many fields - politics, economics, social, culture, science- and technology - facing the Indonesian people. Diversity in creations increased, and artists' visions expanded, as consequence of expression forms offered by the New Art Group. Their approach toward art creation tended to diffuse and combine art desciplines - painting, sculpture, graphics, ceramics - into one creation.

In this period appeared several names: A.D. Pirous, Sunaryo, G. Sidharta Soegijo, T. Sutanto, Haryadi Suadi, Jim Supangkat, Nyoman Nuarta from Bandung; Hardi, F.X. Harsono, Bonyong Muniardi and Dede Eri Supria from Yogya. Later, a few of them moved to Jakarta and established themselves as Jakarta artists, among others, Hardi, F.X. Harsono, Dede Eri Supria and Jim Supangkat. Jim Supangkat left his status as artist and changed profession to become art critic and curator.

Art boom

The hard work and struggles of Indonesian artists since the beginning of this century to the beginning of the eighties were not in vain. Recent developments show noticable progress. This can be seen in the number of artists, diversity of creations, increase in activities, increase in art collectors, increase in galleries and other facilities in the interest of art. Parallel with an upswing in Indonesian physical and economic development, in the mid-eighties Indonesian art experienced what could be called an "art boom". Art sales increased sharply then; many artists who at the beginning had much hardship in life, suddenly turned cheerful because of the good harvest in sales transactions of their creations. In the sixties, art works were mostly bought by embassies in Jakarta; in the eighties, art collectors in general were Indonesians. The motivation and confidence of artists increased and it appeared that people were no longer hesitant to become visual artists.

The "art boom' climate was not without problems; indeed there appeared its negative side: decline in creativity. The symptom could be seen, among others, in the increase in quantity but not in line with quality. This was possible due to a very strong domestic market that could absorb art works. The situation resulted in uncontrollable price jumps for art works. However, there were at least two lessons derived from the experience: an increase in motivation and appreciation for art among the artists and in society, and the rise of a kind of evaluative and reactive activity that developed into fresh new expressions of art creativity. Young artists became active in their creativity probing and roaming. And thus came and developed further various styles of art expressions that were characterized by phenomenon or symptoms of approaching the end of this 20th century.

Recent issues

Nearing the end of the eighties and entering the nineties, developments in Indonesia were marked by several phenomena. Advances in many fields achieved by Indonesians since the New Order (1966) put the attention of the world on Indonesia. This progress made Indonesians more acceptable in the ever expanding world interactions; this was proved in the trust given by the international world to Indonesia to hold events and activities on an international level. For example, various political, economic, science-and technology, cultural and sports forums were held in Indonesia, and it showed a rising tendency. When the President of Indonesia, Suharto, was Chair of the Non-aligned Countries Movement, Indonesia and the community of developing nations - now popularly known as the Southern Community - began receiving significant world attention. The international community then viewed this community not merely as a region related to a certain level of poverty, but it began to see it as a group of nations with important potential in politics, economics and culture. In the period of Suharto as Chair of the Non-aligned Countries Movement, there was held in Indonesia a great exhibition, The Contemporary Art of Non-aligned Countries, with participants from 43 countries of the Southern hemisphere, and with 350 art works in display.

In culture, particularly in art, if one observes it closely, one can see explorations of artists in search of his or her local colours, in expressions or in media (materials and techniques), and equipment. Dependence on art theories and art creativity forms in developed countries (especially in the West) began to wane, or at least began to be challenged by culture and art advocates of developing nations in the form of paradigms and thoughts reactive to existing Western points of view.

The artist journey to local characteristics are not free from issues of post-modernism that provide opportunities to evaluate Western modernism; current evaluation of this modernism shows, among many things, a tendency to disregard art developments outside the Western camp. The expanding post-modernist issues encourage a rise in motivation and confidence of Southern artists to offer contributions in alternative concepts and explorations, for the international art scene.

Currently, the shift in the world map of economic strenghts tends towards the Asia-Pacific region; this in turn brings issues of a shift in culture in the same direction. The twenty-first century will become the era of the Asia-Pacific region, according to observers of culture. Evidence to substantiate the claim, in many cultural activities, has been shown by several potential groups - a country or group of countries - in the region. Many activities with initiatives from Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, China, Australia and ASEAN, for example, have made the Asia-Pacific region a busy area with exhibitions, seminars and other events, that are noted by culture observers as important achievements or milestones in world art interactions.

Movements of Indonesian artists today are within movements of world culture that are marked by the phenomena mentioned before, at least when activities of the Indonesian artists are connected to art activities abroad. At home, many phenomena occur as direct or indirect consequence of advances achieved by Indonesians in certain fields that bring impact on other fields. For instance, rapid developments in large cities result in a fast flow of urbanization with its tendency to produce (positive and negative) impact in economic, social and cultural matters, all at once. The negative impact of rapid economic development that raises materialistic attitudes in Indonesian society, has increased religious consciousness and spirituality.

In 1991 and then in 1995, in Jakarta were held two great festivals with Islamic features, The Festival Istiqlal, that displayed almost all aspects of Indonesian Islamic culture, in art, performing arts, literature and in scientific forum activities. Six million people came to Festival Istiqlal I and Festival Istiqlal II absorbed almost 11 million viewers.

The rise in social political consciousness has encouraged critical attitudes towards home politics. Many forms of expressions of concern for imbalances and disparities in the existing political order show ups and downs. Many commentaries, responses and critical acts against social injustices and criminal acts come to rise among problems in Indonesian society. Issues in ecology, related to many forms of damage to the environment, become day-to-day problems that receive serious attention from many concerned people, organizations and agencies.

A variety of phenomena with international scale or national measure has resulted in a high motivation in creative activities of Indonesian artists. The growth of art infrastructures which is made feasible at the onset of the "art boom" is now increasing in quality and quantity. Many standard branches of art - painting, sculpture and ceramics - show interesting developments. Forms of art that are known as installation and performance are currently popular with young artists. The wealth in themes, media and approaches to Indonesian contemporary art development, now calls for groupings. Thus the Indonesian treasury of art now recognizes new terminologies such as calligraphy painting, Yogya surrealism painting, urban realism, indigenous art, paper art, fibre art, art with inner power, performance, installation and many more that are still coming into being. The current period introduces names that include A.D.Pirous, Abay Subarna, Syaiful Adnan (calligraphy); Ivan Sugito, Lucia Hartini (Yogya surrealism); Dede Eri Supria (urban realism); Heri Dono, Dadang Kristianto, Andar Manik, Marintan Sirait, Tisna Sanjaya, Agus Suwage, Krisna Murti (installation and performance), Biranul Anas, Hasanudin (fibre art); Setiawan Sabana (paper art), and others.

If we observe the journey of modern Indonesian art from the beginning of this century to its present development (contemporary art), then we can conclude that the journey is a reflection of the struggle of Indonesian artists to achieve freedom, starting with freedom from Dutch and Japanese colonialism and from other dominations in the form of Western culture. We must admit, however, that art development in Indonesia is also a cummulative result of the efforts of Indonesian artists to play their role and to give their contributions to Indonesian society that develops further, leaving the 20th century with all phenomena, challenges and aspirations to welcome the 21st century.

Bandung, November 1995

Reference:
1. Yuliman, Sanento, "Seni Lukis Indonesia Baru", Dewan Kesenian Jakarta, Jakarta, 1976
2. Yustiono, "Seni Rupa Kontemporer Indonesia dan Gelombang Post Modernisme", Jurnal Seni Rupa FSRD-ITB, Vol I/1995
3. Yustiono, "Seni Rupa Kontemporer Indonesia dan Era Asia Pasifik", Jurnal Seni Rupa FSRD-ITB, Vol II/1995